Genealogical Classification
Indo-European / Germanic / West Germanic / Inwæonic (North Sea Germanic)
Name
The name Zeeuws (Zeeusch, Zeesch) has been used since at least the thirteenth century for the coastal language of Zeeland’s and Holland’s islands and of the Flemish coastal region running a little past Dunkirk. The origin of the name is uncertain, although it is tempting to suspect a connection with Zees (“of the sea”).
The name Zeeuws is currently used in reference to the language of Goeree-Overflakkee, the Zeelandic islands as well as Western and Central Zeelandic Flanders. The closely related dialects of Western and French Flanders are known as “Western Flemish” and “French Flemish” (Vlaemsch, Vlemsj) respectively. The state of the latter two regional languages will be regularly referred to in the following, due to the strong relationship between them and Zeeuws. The English name “Zeelandic” serves as an overall label for the three varieties. A common, general name is however not being entirely accepted among the speakers.
Area
Zeelandic is spoken in the Netherlands’ provinces of Zeeland (except the eastern parts of Zeelandic Flanders) and Southern Holland (Zuid-Holland, only on Goeree-Overflakkee and in the villages Oostvoorne, De Tinte and Rockanje on Voorne).
The area in which Zeelandic is spoken is divided up by two important isoglosses (i.e., dialect boundaries). In the Zeelandic area, Middle Dutch uu never shifted to ui, and ie never shifted to ij. These shifts did occur In Hollandish (north), Brabantish (east) and Eastern Flemish (southeast). These isoglosses are not only of linguistic significance, but they also play an important role in the speakers’ language perception.
The southern boundary of Zeelandic is a different story. The transition from Zeelandic to Western Flemish is very gradual, and their speakers have no problems understanding each other. There is in fact no language boundary, just as there is really no language boundary between Western Flemish and French Flemish (Vlaemsch, Vlemsj). It is simply a matter of different labels being used for the same regional language in the Netherlands, Belgium and France: Zeêuws, (West-)Vlaoms and Vlaemsch respectively.
History
It was as early as during the thirteenth century that Zeelandic was mentioned as a separate regional language. For example, Jacob van Maerlant wrote about his work method:
Men moet om de rime te souken
Misselike tonghe in bouken:
Duuts, Diets, Brabants, Vlaemsch, Zeeus;
Walsch, Latijn, Griex ende Hebreeus
In order to search for rhymes
One needs various tongues in books:
German, Lowlands German, Brabantish, Flemish, Zeelandic;
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
Thus, Zeelandic was at that time spelled «Zee(u)s(sch)» and was commonly used to refer to the language of the Flemish coast. Until about the fifteenth century, it implied the entire coastal region, with its numerous islands, from Oostvoorne all the way past Dunkirk. It was the language of the interior of Flanders (Ghent, Kortijk) that was referred to as “Flemish” (Vlaemsch).
When in 1526 the orator Cornelius Everaert featured a sailor “speaking Zeelandic” (sprekende de Zeeusche taele) in his play Ghewilligh Labuer ende Volc van Neeringhe, he probably had in mind the “general Flemish” coastal language. Zeelandic thus was a more generally applicable label at the time.
Western Flemish, French Flemish and Zeelandic Flemish on the one hand and Insular Zeelandic on the other hand later grew farther apart. In the south, the language was being influenced by the so-called “Brabantish Expansion”, although this influence was not as strong as it was in the case of Eastern Flemish, which absorbed a great number of Brabantish features. In the north, Zeelandic experienced continual influences from Hollandish and from the Dutch standard language.
As a result, the number of Ingwæonisms (North Sea Germanic features) in both Western Flanders and in Zeeland have been dwindling over the centuries. Flemish of the farthest reaches in French Flanders has preserved a certain number of striking features that are no longer present in Western Flemish, but it shares these features with Zeelandic as well as with the also strongly Ingwæonic Friesian language.
The seventeenth century was the golden age of Zeelandic, when it was the official language of the “Free and Independent State of Zeeland” (Vrye en Independente Staat van Zeeland) and was used in several separate colonies of the States of Zeeland and by particular Zeelanders (Guyana, Suriname, Northeastern Brazil, Tobago, St. Eustacia, Saba, St. Croix, St. Thomas, etc.). Furthermore, it was at that time that a number of Creole languages were created on the basis of Zeelandic and African languages (Berbice, Skepi and Negerhollands). One of these languages, Berbice Dutch of Guyana, is still being spoken. Together with English (Jamaican, Surinamese, Cape Barren English, Hawai’i Creole English, etc.) and Afrikaans (Flytaal and Oorlams), Zeelandic thus belongs to the only Lowlands languages on which Creoles came to be based. (See “Contact Languages”.)
Number of Speakers
According to a recent study (Stichting Scoop – Zeeuws Instituut voor Zorg, Welzijn en Cultuur, 2002), 73.9 percent of the inhabitants of Zeeland speak Zeelandic. A little more than half of the population (56.6%) does so frequently, and 17.3 percent occasionally. One needs to bear in mind that the situation of the language is hardly favorable in and around the larger Zeelandic cities (Middelburg, Vlissingen, Goes en Terneuzen). Barely a third of Zeelandic city dwellers is still able to speak Zeelandic.
No data are known for Goeree-Overflakkee, but the language situation may well be similar to that of Zeeland. Things are quite different in the three Zeelandic-speaking villages on Voorne; only a fraction of the population still speaks their dialects, due to enormous influx from neighboring Rotterdam.
As for Western Flanders, official estimates are consistently as high as 85 percent and even higher. In French Flanders, the language is rapidly losing ground, and only a certain percentage of older persons still speak Vlaemsch. Speakers under the age of forty are scarce, with the exception of some younger persons who made an effort to learn the language in courses.
Status
Zeelandic enjoys not a single form of official recognition. The same applies to Western Flemish and French Flemish. In 2001, a request for official recognition according to the “European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages” was presented to the Netherlands’ central government. This type of recognition requires that the government protect the language and encourage its use.
According to a recent study, about 94 percent of the population regards Zeelandic as being valuable, and 82 percent wishes that the language be preserved for posterity (Scoop, 2002). It is a remarkable fact that the regional language has been used increasingly in contexts in which it used to be taboo (administration, middle class, church).
Public services and industry
Zeelandic is virtually never used in public administration. Its use is limited to some community council meetings. Furthermore, Zeelandic is rarely or never used in public communication.
Zeelandic is being used much more frequently in the welfare sector, although this is not a matter of policy. There is no encouragement to use Zeeland in nursing and retirement homes, while in other parts of the Netherlands there is such encouragement to use regional languages in such settings.
There is a considerable number of psalms, hymns and bibles in Zeelandic, and church services (particularly Protestant ones) are regularly held in the regional language. Particular mention is due to the Church of Ellesdiek in Ellewoutsdijk, a church that has been turned into a “spiritual-cultural” center in which Zeelandic is the only language used in ecumenical services and other types of activities.
In the industrial sector, Zeelandic plays an important role especially in small- and mid-sized companies. Many business meetings are held in Zeelandic, many customers use Zeelandic during visits, and is some advertising in Zeelandic (albeit not to a large extent).
The situation is similar in Western Flanders, although there are no church services in the regional language. In French Flanders, the regional language has virtually disappeared from public life.
Education
Currently, a number of projects aimed at giving Zeelandic a place in primary education are underway. No attention is being paid to Zeelandic in secondary education, and it is altogether absent from tertiary education. There is no regional language teaching at all in Western Flanders, while in French Flanders a number of special courses enjoy much popularity among adults as well as children.
Zeelandic is the only regional language in northwestern Europe (Northern Germany, the Netherlands, Flanders, England, Scotland, Northern Ireland) that is not being systematically studied in any scientific institution. The Zeeland-Flemish dialects, Western Flemish and French Flemish receive ample scientific consideration in the Dictionary of the Flemish Dialects (Woordenboek van de Vlaamse Dialecten) project conducted by the National University of Ghent (Rijksuniversiteit Gent).
Media
Zeelandic is hardly ever used in Zeeland’s regional broadcasts, even less in television than in radio. Local radio stations do not pay much attention to Zeelandic either. One column per week is dedicated to Zeelandic in the PZC, the only regional newspaper in Zeeland.
The situation in Western Flanders is similar, while in French Flanders the independent radio station Uylenspieghel attracts a considerable number of listeners with programs in French and Flemish.
In Zeeland, the quarterly magazine Noe is published entirely in Zeelandic, Western Flemish and French Flemish and also reports on current affairs.
Culture
Zeelandic and West Flemish are used by a large number of artists. This includes singers-songwriters and rock bands. In 2000, a song in Zeelandic reached the Netherlands’ Top 40 for the first time. It was by the Zeelandic/Amsterdam band Nuff Said that had recorded several Zeelandic songs for the Zeelandic-language cult movie Wilde Mossels (Wild Mussels). In Belgium, West Flemish artists, such as Willem Vermandere, Flip Kowlier and ’t Hof van Commerce, attract national attention as well. French Flanders has the choir Reuzekoor of Dunkirk and Joël & Klerktje with traditional Flemish repertoires.
Many local and regional theater organizations regularly stage plays in Zeelandic and Western Flemish. The regional language is occasionally used in some professional productions as well. Every year, the Folk Theater of French Flanders of Belgium provides French Flanders with a series of play productions, meeting with much success.
A handful of books with Zeelandic poetry and short prose is published annually. In addition, there is the previously mentioned magazine Noe. With a few exceptions, the quality of Zeelandic literature is not yet on a par with those of some other small (regional) languages.
Literary production in Western Flemish is especially insignificant, even less significant than that in Zeelandic. Leading in French Flanders is the poet Jean-Noël Ternynck. His poetic contemplations about his native land are available both in book form and on audiocassettes (with musical accompaniment). There is a general spelling system for all Zeelandic, West Flemish and French Flemish dialects, accepted by most speakers and many writers.
Author: Marco Evenhuis, 2002
Translator: Reinhard F. Hahn, 2002
Further information: http://www.lowlands-l.net (Click on “Resources” and on “Links” or “Offline Material”.)
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